Steel slag is a typical solid waste from the metallurgical industry. Its use in cement-based materials is severely limited because free oxides cause poor volume stability. Carbonation technology is applied to react CO2 with reactive components in steel slag. Stable minerals such as calcite are formed. The volume stability of steel slag is therefore significantly improved, and CO2 is mineralized and stored. The carbonation mechanism was analyzed from the perspective of producing steel-slag-based construction materials by carbonation treatment. The effects and applications of carbonation treatment on drying shrinkage, frost resistance, and chloride ion penetration resistance, and sulfate attack resistance of steel-slag-based construction materials were systematically summarized. Finally, based on the current state of research, existing problems were identified and improvement strategies were proposed. The rational utilization of steel slag as a secondary resource is thereby promoted, and the dual-carbon goals of the construction materials industry are supported.
在严寒气候条件下,混凝土结构常常遭受冰冻的影响,冻融循环是寒冷地区混凝土结构劣化的主要原因[73],频繁冻融会导致结构表层剥落、裂缝蔓延甚至结构崩溃。吴昊泽等[74]采用碳化钢渣集料制备透水混凝土,发现在质量损失方面,碳化钢渣透水混凝土表现出较小的变化;在强度损失方面,随着钢渣取代量的不断增大,碳化钢渣透水混凝土的损失率明显低于未碳化组。该研究表明,在适当的掺量和处理条件下,碳化钢渣作为骨料可以有效提高透水混凝土的抗冻融性能,使其在寒冷地区的应用更具潜力。Pang等[75]的研究进一步从微观结构角度验证了碳化钢渣骨料(CSA)在改善抗冻融性能方面的效果。通过扫描电子显微镜(scanning electron microscope,SEM)分析不同骨料的ITZ发现, 与普通骨料(NA)相比,碳化钢渣骨料的ITZ未出现明显的裂缝(图4[75]),骨料与水泥浆体之间的界面结合更为紧密。这种更加的致密结构对于抵抗冻融循环起到了关键作用,使得碳化钢渣骨料混凝土的抗冻性显著高于普通骨料,约为其5倍。在成型制品方面,Hou等[76]对CO2养护钢渣砖进行冻融试验发现,在合理粒径分布与碳化时间条件下,试件在循环后仍保持较高的强度保持率与体积稳定性。但是钢渣颗粒粒径与碳化程度对抗冻性能具有双重影响。当颗粒粒径适度降低时,碳化反应更为充分,有利于形成均匀的碳酸盐沉积层并改善界面结构;但当颗粒过细时,材料吸水速率提高,更易达到较高饱水度从而加剧冻融损伤[77]。因此,钢渣粒径的选择既要保证碳化反应充分,也要避免因吸水能力增强而提高冻融风险。
GaoYing, WangWeihe, ChenMeng, et al. Research progress on the volume expansion behavior and modification method of steel slag[J]. Science Technology and Engineering, 2021, 21(33): 14040-14048.
ZhangBohao, WangYaozheng, RenXiaojian, et al. Analysis of the characteristics of aged steel slag aggregate and its asphalt mixture properties[J]. Science Technology and Engineering, 2024, 24(30): 13145-13152.
MoLiwu, LiuPeng, XuMaochun. Carbonization of steel slag and its application in low-carbon manufacturing of building materials[J]. Journal of Building Materials, 2024, 27(12): 1122-1128.
[7]
ChenZ H, CangZ Z, YangF M, et al. Carbonation of steelmaking slag presents an opportunity for carbon neutral: a review[J]. Journal of CO2 Utilization, 2021, 54: 101738.
[8]
GaoW H, ZhouW T, LüX J, et al. Comprehensive utilization of steel slag: a review[J]. Powder Technology, 2023, 422: 118449.
XieZhichao, WangBaoyin, JiangZhengwu. Evaluation of the volume stability of steel slag aggregate concrete and its inhibition effect[J]. Journal of Building Materials, 2022, 25(10): 1077-1085.
RenXu, WangHuigang, WuYuedong, et al. Discussion on steel slag treatment and resource utilization under carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals[J]. Environmental Engineering, 2022, 40(8): 220-224.
[13]
SongQ F, GuoM Z, WangL, et al. Use of steel slag as sustainable construction materials: a review of accelerated carbonation treatment[J]. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 2021, 173: 105740.
[14]
WangY H, XieX, WangX, et al. Microscopic analysis of carbonated steel slag and its impact on properties of cementitious materials[J]. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2025, 22: e04217.
[15]
ChenK W, PanS Y, ChenC T, et al. High-gravity carbonation of basic oxygen furnace slag for CO2 fixation and utilization in blended cement[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 124: 350-360.
AnShengli, HuangLan, ChaiYifan, et al. Research progress on steel slag treatment technology and resource utilization[J]. Iron & Steel, 2025, 60(3): 1-12.
LiuXin, WangZhongliang, BaoYanping. Research status and application prospect of converter steel slag resource utilization[J]. Chinese Journal of Engineering, 2025, 47(4): 668-681.
CaoWeida, YangQuanbin. Effect of carbonation curing on durability of carbon fixing steel slag-slaked lime brick[J]. Journal of Building Materials, 2023, 26(3): 324-331.
WangHuigang, WuLong, PengBen, et al. Characteristics and research progress of steel slag primary treatment technology[J]. Science Technology and Engineering, 2020, 20(13): 5025-5031.
LiuYunpeng, PangLing, ZouYingxue. Research on volume stability performance of hot stuffy and hot slag sand[J]. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology (Transportation Science & Engineering), 2020, 44(6): 1113-1117.
ZhangGuowei, ZhangYanping, WuTong, et al. Analysis of organic rankine cycle power generation technology for steel slag hot stuffing waste heat recovery[J]. Energy for Metallurgical Industry, 2021, 40(2): 9-12.
LiYunyun, NiWen, LiJia, et al. Research on the basic properties of drum slag and hot slag[J]. Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology, 2020, 52(12): 132-139.
[34]
MatsuuraH, YangX, LiG Q, et al. Recycling of ironmaking and steelmaking slags in Japan and China[J]. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials, 2022, 29(4): 739-749.
CuiXinyu, NaXianzhao. Steel slag resource technology and prospects[J]. China Metallurgy, 2024, 34(10): 16-25.
[37]
GuW F, JiangD, JiangL Y, et al. Phase development in steelmaking slags during a gas quenching granulation process[J]. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2024, 12(3): 112504.
[38]
PanS Y, AdhikariR, ChenY H, et al. Integrated and innovative steel slag utilization for iron reclamation, green material production and CO2 fixation via accelerated carbonation[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 137: 617-631.
[39]
WangJ Y, ZhongM, WuP F, et al. A review of the application of steel slag in CO2 fixation[J]. Chembioeng Reviews, 2021, 8(3): 189-199.
WuQiong, HuZhongjun, WangJianwu, et al. Research progress of carbonization treatment of recycled coarse aggregate and its effect on properties of recycled concrete[J]. Building Structure, 2023, 53(S2): 1347-1351.
JiangYi, MaZihan, ShenPeiliang. et al. Research progress on carbonation technologies for valorising waste concrete: a review[J]. Journal of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2023, 51(9): 2433-2445.
FangYanfeng, WangDan, WangQing, et al. A review on carbonation of steel slag and its application in building materials[J]. Materials Reports, 2020, 34(3): 132-138.
[46]
DigiovanniC, HisseineO A, AwolayoA N. Carbon dioxide sequestration through steel slag carbonation: review of mechanisms, process parameters, and cleaner upcycling pathways[J]. Journal of CO2 Utilization, 2024, 81: 102736.
[47]
MahoutianM, GhoulehZ, ShaoY. Carbon dioxide activated ladle slag binder[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2014, 66: 214-221.
[48]
YiY D, LinY, DuY C, et al. Accelerated carbonation of ladle furnace slag and characterization of its mineral phase[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 276: 122235.
[49]
LiJ, HouQ M, ZhangX Q, et al. Microbial-induced mineral carbonation: a promising approach for improving Carbon sequestration and performance of steel slag for its engineering utilization[J]. Developments in the Built Environment, 2025, 21: 100615.
MuYuandong. Carbonation-induced Hardening mechanism of calcium silicate minerals and the performance-enhancing strategies of the carbonated materials[D]. Wuhan: Wuhan University of Technology, 2019.
[52]
ZhangL C, ZhouJ K. Fractal characteristics of pore structure of hardened cement paste prepared by pressurized compact molding[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 259: 119856.
[53]
MuY D, LiuZ C, WangF Z, et al. Carbonation characteristics of γ-dicalcium silicate for low-carbon building material[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 177: 322-331.
[54]
ZhaoS X, LiuZ C, WangF Z, et al. Effect of extended carbonation curing on the properties of γ-C2S compacts and its implications on the multi-step reaction mechanism[J]. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2021, 9(19): 6673-6684.
[55]
WangD Z, ZhangH F, LiuM J, et al. The characterization and mechanism of carbonated steel slag and its products under low CO2 pressure[J]. Materials Today Communications, 2023, 35: 105827.
[56]
ZhengZ Q, HeX Y, QiH H, et al. A new method to improve the carbon mineralization efficiency of steel slag in aqueous condition: the effect of mechanical exfoliation[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2025, 106: 112473.
[57]
BodorM, SantosR M, CristeaG, et al. Laboratory investigation of carbonated BOF slag used as partial replacement of natural aggregate in cement mortars[J]. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2016, 65: 55-66.
[58]
HuijgenW J, WitkampG J, ComansR N. Mineral CO2sequestration by steel slag carbonation[J]. Environmental Science & Technology, 2005, 39(24): 9676-9682.
[59]
DroutE, PoyetS, BescopP L, et al. Carbonation of hardened cement pastes: influence of temperature[J]. Cement and Concrete Research, 2018, 115: 445-459.
[60]
GomariK E, GomariS R, HughesD, et al. Optimised steel slag carbonation for enhanced CO2 sequestration: a comprehensive study using response surface methodology (RSM)[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 2025, 391: 126496.
[61]
ChangE E, ChiuA C, PanS Y, et al. Carbonation of basic oxygen furnace slag with metalworking wastewater in a slurry reactor[J]. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2013, 12: 382-389.
[62]
LibrandiP, NielsenP, CostaG, et al. Mechanical and environmental properties of carbonated steel slag compacts as a function of mineralogy and CO2 uptake[J]. Journal of CO2 Utilization, 2019, 33: 201-214.
[63]
SrivastavaS, SnellingsR, NielsenP, et al. Accelerated carbonation of ferrous and non-ferrous slags to produce clinker-free carbonate-bonded blocks: synergetic reduction in environmental leaching[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 348: 128630.
DuBin, YinFengjiao, WangShouquan, et al. Effect of steel slag carbonization process on concrete compressive strength[J]. Shandong Chemical Industry, 2020, 49(16): 43-44, 53.
WuHaoze, XuDongyu, LiangXiaojie. CO2 Study on the influence of pressure on the carbonization of steel slag[J]. Cement Engineering, 2020(4): 26-28.
[68]
LiuL C, GanM, FanX H, et al. Mechanism of ultrasonic enhanced acetic acid efficiently leaching of steel slag and synthesis of calcium carbonate whiskers[J]. Separation and Purification Technology, 2024, 339: 126615.
[69]
LiuL C, FanX H, GanM, et al. Microwave-enhanced selective leaching calcium from steelmaking slag to fix CO2 and produce high value-added CaCO3[J]. Separation and Purification Technology, 2024, 330: 125395.
[70]
ZhongX Z, LiL F, JiangY, et al. Elucidating the dominant and interaction effects of temperature, CO2 pressure and carbonation time in carbonating steel slag blocks[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 302: 124158.
[71]
GaoT M, DaiT, Shen, et al. Benefits of using steel slag in cement clinker production for environmental conservation and economic revenue generation[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 282: 124538.
[72]
GuoJ L, BaoY P, WangM. Steel slag in China: treatment, recycling, and management[J]. Waste Management, 2018, 78: 318-330.
WangAiguo, HeMaocan, MoLiwu, et al. Research progress of building materials prepared from the carbonized curing steel slag[J]. Materials Reports, 2019, 33(17): 2939-2948.
LuanNing, YinMing, ChenKun, et al. Experimental study on the carbonization of steel slag and its effect on the properties of cement mortar[J]. China Nonferrous Metallurgy, 2023, 52(1): 107-113.
[77]
LiuP, ZhongJ K, ZhangM, et al. Effect of CO2treatment on the microstructure and properties of steel slag supplementary cementitous materials[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 309: 125171.
[78]
ShaoX, MehdizadehH, LiL F, et al. Life cycle assessment of upcycling waste slag via CO2pre-treatment: comparative study of carbonation routes[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2022, 378: 134115.
[79]
ShenW G, LiuY, WuM M, et al. Ecological carbonated steel slag pervious concrete prepared as a key material of sponge city[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 256: 120244.
ChangJun. Manufacture of electric arc furnace slag aggregate and concrete through carbonation curing[J]. Journal of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2007(9): 1264-1269.
[82]
MoL W, YangS, HuangB, et al. Preparation, microstructure and property of carbonated artificial steel slag aggregate used in concrete[J]. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2020, 113:103715.
[83]
YangS, MoL W, DengM. Effects of ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) on the accelerated carbonation and properties of artificial steel slag aggregates[J]. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2021, 118: 123-124.
[84]
LiuJ, ZengC, LiZ L, et al. Carbonation of steel slag at low CO2 concentrations: novel biochar cold-bonded steel slag artificial aggregates[J]. The Science of the Total Environment, 2023, 902: 166065.
[85]
XuZ M, ZhouY, ZhangY H. Ultra-high strength carbonated slab prepared with steel slag powders via accelerated carbonation for CO2 sequestration[J]. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2023, 24: 9058-9068.
[86]
MaM T, MehdizadehH, GuoM Z, et al. Effect of direct carbonation routes of basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) on strength and hydration of blended cement paste[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 304: 124628.
[87]
WuF S, YouX J, WangM M, et al. Increasing flexural strength of CO2 cured cement paste by CaCO3 polymorph control[J]. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2023, 141: 105128.
[88]
DengJ X, ZhangD, GuL, et al. Enhanced carbonation of steel slag blocks using various chemical additives[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2025, 105: 112518.
[89]
LeiX Y, HaoY, PanF, et al. Flue gas carbonation curing of steel slag blocks: effects of residual heat and water vapor[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 384: 127943.
[90]
SongQ F, JiangY, ZhangM Y, et al. Carbonation-induced bonding in steel slag blocks: effect of pre-carbonation and calcium co-growth[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2025, 482: 141690.
[91]
MastaliM, KinnunenP, DalvandA, et al. Drying shrinkage in alkali-activated binders—a critical review[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 190: 533-550.
[92]
ZhuangS Y, WangQ, LuoT. Modification of ultrafine blast furnace slag with steel slag as a novel high-quality mineral admixture to prepare high-strength concrete[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2023, 71: 106501.
BaiQin, DengWei, LuFuyang, et al. Research progress on effect of steel slag on durability of plateau concrete[J]. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2023, 42(12): 4332-4340, 4350.
[95]
DengJ X, GuL, WangP, et al. Developing sustainable steel slag-based aerated concrete: effects of accelerated carbonation on performance and carbon emissions[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, 98: 111051.
[96]
LiuY, HeB, ChenZ, et al. Contribution of calcium-containing minerals on the mechanical properties of alkali-activated materials: a study of carbonation steel slag[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2025, 468: 140451.
YuHanjun, XuPeizhen, ZhuYaguang, et al. Effect of carbonized steel slag as substitute for sand on the strength and durability of cement mortar[J]. Journal of Qingdao University of Technology, 2023, 44(5): 20-28, 71.
XiaoQianhui, NiuDitao. Concrete damage analysis under the combined action of freeze-thaw and carbonization[J]. Journal of Building Materials, 2015, 18(5): 763-766.
PangB, ZhouZ H, XuH X. Utilization of carbonated and granulated steel slag aggregate in concrete[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2015, 84: 454-467.
[104]
HouG H, YanZ W, SunJ F, et al. Microstructure and mechanical properties of CO2-cured steel slag brick in pilot-scale[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 271(9): 121581.
[105]
LiW T, MohammadP G, JavierC, et al. Water absorption and critical degree of saturation relating to freeze-thaw damage in concrete pavement joints[J]. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 2012, 24(3): 299-307.
SongXuefeng, ZhangXianyun, GaoRui. Corrosion behavior of steel bars in concrete under the interaction of carbonization and chloride ions[J]. Journal of Building Materials, 2014, 17(5): 892-895.
[108]
GhoulehZ, GuthrieR I L, ShaoY. Production of carbonate aggregates using steel slag and carbon dioxide for carbon-negative concrete[J]. Journal of CO2 Utilization, 2017, 18: 125-138.
[109]
逄博. 碳化钢渣骨料及混凝土的制备和性能研究[D]. 济南: 济南大学, 2016.
[110]
PangBo. Research on preparation and properties of carbonized steel slag aggregate and concrete[D]. Jinan: University of Jinan, 2016.
[111]
WuM, ChenD P, LuZ, et al. Passivation behavior of carbon steel in carbonation-cured cement-based materials incorporating steel slags[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2025, 477: 141354.
[112]
ZhouX F, YuanQ, ChenL, et al. Sulfate resistance of carbonated basic oxygen furnace slag-metakaolin-Portland cement blends[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, 87: 109098.
[113]
LiL S, ChenT F, GaoX J, et al. Two-step carbonation for mitigating magnesium sulfate attack: exploring optimal defense strategies[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2025, 465:140193.