The cumulative damage effect induced by cyclic freeze-thaw actions on geomaterials is a significant cause of engineering failures in cold regions. To investigate the internal damage and failure mechanisms of rock-like materials under freeze-thaw cycles, uniaxial compression tests and acoustic emission (AE) tests under uniaxial loading were conducted on cement mortar specimens simulating rock behavior. The influence of the number of freeze-thaw cycles on the mechanical and AE characteristics of such materials was studied. The results indicate that: (1) The peak strength and frost resistance coefficient of the specimens decrease as the number of freeze-thaw cycles increases, with a more pronounced reduction after exceeding 40 cycles; (2) Freeze-thaw cycles have a cumulative effect on the damage and failure of specimens. Those subjected to more cycles exhibit more severe damage under uniaxial compression, with more complex crack propagation paths, significantly increased crack number and width, accompanied by extensive fragment and powder detachment; (3) Freeze-thaw action causes the specimens to enter a “continuous damage release” state earlier. As the number of freeze-thaw cycles increases, the peak ring-down count and cumulative ring-down count rise, and the cumulative number of cracks increases significantly; (4) The amplitude distribution of acoustic emissions in freeze-thawed specimens generally exhibits a “V” shape, with the peak frequency gradually shifting toward the dominant frequency band. The findings provide an experimental basis for the design, construction, and safe operation of geotechnical engineering in cold regions.